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HighVoltage123 — Mon, 02 Jun 2008 12:47:56 CDT

Living the dream is cruising with our sailing catamaran the Greek islands. Expert sailors, novices, first timers, you can follow the sail routes of Thyseas and the Argonauts. Cruise in comfort on board our chartered catamarans. Individuals, couples or families can experience the immense pleasure and thrill of cruising on our catamaran. A dream come true.

Catamaran Sailing Charter Itineraries

Cyclades- central & west –itinerary – minimum 14 days

The Cyclades Islands cluster is a group of Greek Islands situated in the deep blue Aegean Sea. It is considered one of the finest vacation destinations worldwide, providing visitors with a wide range of diverse characteristics.

Cyprus- Crete Passage –itinerary – minimum 28 days

An island whose rich dramatic history can be traced back over nine thousand years; an island so coveted over the centuries that it has been invaded and claimed by a fascinating mixture of civilizations from near and far all of which have left their culture and shaped its character.

Dodecanese - plus- itinerary- duration minimum of 14 days

The Dodecanese or Dodecanisos is the name of the island complex in the north eastern Aegean. The great majority of the beaches are sandy with crystalline blue waters. The picturesque landscape makes it even more appealing.

Eastern Ocean plus- itinerary- duration minimum of 14 days

The target islands for this itinerary are Ikaria, Samos, Chios, Mytilini, Lesvos, Lemnos, Thasos.
Ikaria has many very beautiful beaches with golden sand or pebbles and azure or emerald crystalline waters.
A plethora of restaurants, taverns, cafes, modern bars, bouzoukia (clubs with Greek live music) and huge or smaller clubs playing all sorts of music can be found in the capital of Samos.
Lesvos Island has some of the most charming villages in the Eastern Aegean.
The appealing landscape of the island, its beautiful beaches, its unspoiled and traditional atmosphere and its lakes full of flamingos are some of the various assets of Lemnos holiday.
Thassos has a very good coast road running all the way around the island and providing access to even the most far-flung corners of the shore.

Egina- Spetses - Itinerary – Minimum duration 7 days

Aegina, Hydra, Spetses and Poros lie in a strategic location, permitting to have control of both the Saronic Gulf and the Argolic Gulf, location from where this group of islands took its name (Argo-saronic).

Halkidiki - itinerary- duration minimum of 21 days

Halkidiki is a peninsula, southeast of the city of Thessaloniki (Greece's second largest city). With its characteristic three peninsulas (Kassandra, Sithonia, Athos) it resembles a trident piercing the Aegean.

Ionian - itinerary- duration minimum of 21 days

The island of Ithaki is one of the most beautiful and authentic islands of the Ionian Sea. The island is mostly known as the home of Odysseus.

Cyclades (Syros - Finikas Harbour)

The capital of Syros, Ermoupolis the "Queen of the Cyclades", impresses the visitor with its old mansions and its traditional architecture.

Suggested itineraries Syros / Syros

The capital of Syros, Ermoupolis the "Queen of the Cyclades", was Greece’s principal port and is today the largest town of the Cyclades and the capital of the archipelago.

Saronikos –Eastern Peloponese

Aegina, Hydra, Spetses and Poros lie in a strategic location, permitting to have control of both the Saronic Gulf and the Argolic Gulf, location from where this group of islands took its name (Argo-saronic).

Greece sailing greece yacht catamaran holiday vacation

Greek islands

Cyprus * Crete * Cyclades islands * Dodecanese islands * Eastern Aegen * Halkidiki * Ioanian islands * North Aegen * Saronic islands * Sporades islands

Mythology

HighVoltage123 — Wed, 04 Jul 2007 11:08:38 CDT

the Gods

...In the beginning, Hesiod says, there was Chaos, vast and dark. Then appeared Gaea, the dep-breasted earth, and finally Eros, ' the love which softens hearts ', whose fructifying influence would thenceforth preside over the formation of beings an things. From Chaos were born Erebus and Night who, uniting, gave birth in their turn to Ether and Hemera, the day. On her part Gaea first bore Uranus, the sky crowned with stars, ' whom she made her equal in grandeur, so that he entirely covered her '. Then she created the high mountains and Pontus, ' the sterile sea ' with its harmonious waves...

Chaos - in one ancient Greek myth of creation, the dark, silent abyss from which all things came into existence. According to the Theogony of Hesiod, Chaos generated the solid mass of Earth, from which arose the starry, cloud-filled Heaven. Mother Earth and Father Heaven, personified respectively as Gaea and her offspring Uranus, were the parents of the Titans. In a later theory, Chaos is the formless matter from which the cosmos, or harmonious order, was created.

Gaea - She was the mother and wife of Father Heaven, Uranus. They were the parents of the first creatures, the Titans, the Cyclopes, and the Giants - the Hecatoncheires (Hundred - Headed Ones). Uranus hated the monsters, and, even though they were his children, locked them in a secret place in the earth. Gaea was enraged at this favoritism and persuaded their son Cronos to overthrow his father. He emasculated Uranus, and from his blood Gaea brought forth the Giants, and the three avenging goddesses the Erinyes. Her last and most terrifying offspring was Typhon, a 100-headed monster, who, although conquered by the god Zeus, was believed to spew forth the molten lava flows of Mount Etna.

Tartarus - The lowest region of the underworld. Hesiod claimed that a brazen anvil would take none days and nights to fall from heaven to earth, and nine days and nights to fall from earth to Tartarus. Tartarus rose out of Chaos and was the destination of wicked souls. Uranus banished his children the Cyclopes and the Hecatoncheires to Tartarus, as Zeus also did to the Titans. Other famous inhabitants of Tartarus include Sisyphus, Ixion, Tantalus, Salmoneus, Tityus, Ophion, and the daughters of Danaus.

Eros - The god of love. He was thought of as a handsome and intense young man, attended by Pothos ("longing") or Himeros ("desire"). Later mythology made him the constant attendant of his mother, Aphrodite, goddess of love.

Erebus - Personification of the darkness of the Underworld and the offspring of Chaos. . In later myth, Erebus was the dark region beneath the earth through which the shades must pass to the realm of Hades below. He is often used metaphorically for Hades itself.

Uranus + Gaea - The personification of the sky; the god of the heavens and husband of Gaea, the goddess of the earth. . Their children are the Hecatonchires, the Cyclopes and the Titans.

Pontus - The sea god.

Cyclopes - Three sons: Arges, Brontes, and Steropes of Uranus and Gaea. The Cyclops were giant beings with a single, round eye in the middle of their foreheads.They helped Zeus defeat their brother, Cronus, by forging lightning bolts. They also made Poseidon’s trident and Hades invisibility cap.

Hecatonchires - Three sons of Uranus and Gaia. There were three of them: Briareus also called Aegaeon, Cottus, and Gyges also called Gyes. They were gigantic and had fifty heads and one hundred arms each of great strength. They had 100 hands and helped Zeus in his war against the Titans.

Cronus + Rhea - Cronus was a ruler of the universe during the Golden Age. He was one of the 12 Titans and the youngest son of Uranus and Gaea, Cronus and his sister-queen, Rhea, became the parents of 6 of the 12 gods and goddesses known as the Olympians. Cronus had been warned that he would be overthrown by one of his own children. To prevent this, he swallowed his first five children as soon as they were born. Rhea did not like this. She substituted a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes for their sixth child, Zeus. He was hidden in Crete, and when he was older, he returned and forced Cronos to disgorge all the other children, who had grown inside of him. Zeus and his siblings fought a war against Cronos and the Titans. Zeus won, and the Titans were confined in Tartarus, a cave in the deepest part of the underworld.

Coeus + Phoebe - Coeus was a titan of Intelligence, the father of Leto, husband of Phoebe.

Oceanus + Tethys - The personification of the vast ocean. Together with his wife Tethys, they produced the rivers and six thousand offsprings called the Oceanids. He ruled over Ocean, a great river encircling the earth, which was believed to be a flat circle. The nymphs of this great river, the Oceanids, were their daughters, and the gods of all the streams on earth were their sons.

Hestia - Virgin goddess of the hearth. She was the symbol of the house, around which a new born child was carried before it was received into the family. Although she appears in very few myths, most cities had a common hearth where her sacred fire burned. I

Hades - He was made lord of the underworld, ruling over the dead. He is a greedy god who is greatly concerned with increasing his subjects. Those whose calling increase the number of dead were seen favorably by him. He was also the god of wealth, due to the precious metals mined from the earth. His wife was Persephone whom Hades abducted.

The underworld itself was often called Hades. It was divided into two regions: Erebus, where the dead pass as soon as they die, and Tartarus, the deeper region, where the Titans had been imprisoned. It was a dim and unhappy place, inhabited by vague forms and shadows and guarded by Cerberus, the three-headed, dragon-tailed dog. Sinister rivers separated the underworld from the world above, and the aged boatman Charon ferried the souls of the dead across these waters.

Poseidon - God of the sea. His weapon was a trident, which could shake the earth, and shatter any object. He was second only to Zeus in power amongst the gods. Under the ocean, he had a marvelous golden palace. Poseidon was the husband of Amphitrite, one of the Nereids, by whom he had a son, Triton. Poseidon had numerous other love affairs. At one point he desired Demeter. To put him off Demeter asked him to make the most beautiful animal that the world had ever seen. To impress her Poseidon created the first horse. In some accounts his first attempts were unsucessful and created a varity of other animals in his quest. By the time the horse was created his passion for Demeter had cooled.

Zeus + Hera - The god of the sky and ruler of the gods of Mount Olympus. He displaced his father and assumed the leadership of the gods of Olympus. Zeus was considered the father of the gods and of mortals. He did not create either gods or mortals; he was their father in the sense of being the protector and ruler both of the Olympian family and of the human race. His weapon was a thunderbolt. His breastplate was the aegis, his bird the eagle, his tree the oak. He was married to Hera but, is famous for his many affairs, which resulted in many known children and probably many more that were not known to be his. Athena was his favorite child. He bore her alone from his head. One of the greatest feasts for Zeus was the Olympic games. They were taking place every four years in Olympia. Even if there was a war between the city-states of Greece they were stopping the war to take part on that games.

Hera's marriage was founded in strife with Zeus and continued in strife. Writers represented Hera as constantly being jealous of Zeus's various amorous affairs. She punished her rivals and their children, among both goddesses and mortals, with implacable fury. The peacock (the symbol of pride; her wagon was pulled by peacocks) and the cow (she was also known as Bopis, meaning "cow-eyed", which was later translated as "with big eyes") were her sacred animals. Her favorite city was Argos.

Demeter + Zeus - Goddess of corn and the harvest. She taught mankind the art of sowing and ploughing so they could end their nomadic existence. She was of a severe, a beauty scarcely relieved by her hair. which was as fair as ripened grain. Poseidon coveted her, but Demeter refused herself to him. To escape him she fled to Arkadia where, assuming the shape of a mare, she mingled with the herds of King Oncus. Poseidon, however, succeeded in finding her, changed himself into a stallion and made her the mother of the horse Arion.

When her daughter Persephone was abducted by Hades, god of the underworld, Demeter's grief was so great that she neglected the land; no plants grew, and famine devastated the earth. Dismayed at this situation, Zeus, demanded that his brother Hades return Persephone to her mother. Hades agreed, but before he released the girl, he made her eat some pomegranate seeds that would force her to return to him for four months each year. In her joy at being reunited with her daughter, Demeter caused the earth to bring forth bright spring flowers and abundant fruit and grain for the harvest. However, her sorrow returned each autumn when Persephone had to return to the underworld. The desolation of the winter season and the death of vegetation were regarded as the yearly manifestation of Demeter's grief when her daughter was taken from her. Demeter and Persephone were worshipped in the rites of the Eleusinian Mysteries.

Persephone - Persephone was the Queen of the Underworld and the daughter of Demeter. Persephone is the goddess of the underworld in Greek mythology. She is the daughter of Zeus and Demeter, goddess of the harvest. Persephone was such a beautiful girl that everyone loved her, even Hades wanted her for himself. Although Zeus gave his consent, Demeter was unwilling. Hades, therefore, seized the maiden as she was gathering flowers and carried her off to his realm. Persephone was a personification of the revival of nature in spring. Her attributes in iconography can include a torch, a crown, a sceptre, and stalks of grain.

Leto + Zeus - The mother of Artemis, goddess of the bow and of hunting. She was loved by the god Zeus, who, fearing the jealousy of his wife, Hera, banished Leto when she was about to bear his child. All countries and islands were also afraid of Hera's wrath and refused the desperate Leto a home where her child could be born. Finally, in her wanderings, she set foot on a small island floating in the Aegean Sea, which was called Delos.

Iapetus - The son Uranus and Gaea. Iapetus' wife was Clymene.

Athena - or Pallas-Athene, is one of the most important goddesses in Greek mythology. Goddess of wisdom, war, the arts, industry, justice and skill. Athena sprang full-grown and armoured from the forehead of the god Zeus and was his favourite child. She was fierce and brave in battle but, only fights to protect the state and home from outside enemies. She was the goddess of the city, handicrafts, and agriculture. She invented the bridle, which permitted man to tame horses, the trumpet, the flute, the pot, the rake, the plow, the yoke, the ship, and the chariot. Her attributes in iconography include the aegis (a fringed cloak, sometimes decorated with a Gorgon's head), the helmet, and the spear.

Ares - God of war. He was very aggressive. He was unpopular with both gods and humans. Ares was not invincible, even against mortals. He personified the brutal nature of war. He was immortal but whenever he would get hurt he would run back to his father, Zeus and was healed. Ares was mainly worshipped in Thracia.

Hebe - The goddess of youth. She, along with Ganymede were the cupbearers to the gods, serving them their nectar and ambrosia. She also prepared Ares' bath, and helped Hera to her chariot. Hebe was Hercules' wife.

Hephaestus - God of fire and metalwork. He was born lame and weak, and shortly after his birth, he was cast out of Olympus. In most legends, however, he was soon honoured again on Olympus and was married to Aphrodite, goddess of love, or to Aglaia, one of the three Graces. His workshop was believed to lie under Mount Etna, a volcano in Sicily. He made many wonderful artifacts for the gods, including the twelve golden thrones of the Olympians, their weapons and treasures.

Apollo - Apollo was primarily a god of prophecy. He sometimes gave the gift of prophecy to mortals whom he loved, such as the Trojan princess Cassandra. As a prophet and magician, he is the patron of medicine and healing. He was a gifted musician, who delighted the gods with his performance on the lyre. He was also a master archer and a fleet-footed athlete, credited with having been the first victor in the Olympic games. His twin sister was Artemis. He was famous for his oracle at Delphi. People traveled to it from all over the Greek world to divine the future. He was also the god of agriculture and cattle, and of light and truth.

Artemis - Artemis was the goddess of the hunt and animals, as well as of childbirth. Her twin brother was Apollo. As the moon goddess, she was sometimes identified with the goddesses Selene and Hecate.Her attributes are the bow and arrow, while dogs, deer and goose are her sacred animals. Her most elaborate temple was in Ephesis.

Atlas - Son of the Titan Iapetus and the nymph Clymene, and brother of Prometheus. Atlas fought with the Titans in the war against the deities of Mount Olympus. Atlas stormed the heavens and Zeus punished him for this deed by condemning him to forever bear the earth and the heavens upon his shoulders. He was the father of the Hesperides, the nymphs who guarded the tree of golden apples, and Heracles (Hercules).

Prometheus - Prometheus was the wisest Titan, known as the friend and benefactor of humanity.He stole the sacred fire from Zeus and the gods. He also tricked the gods so that they should get the worst parts of any animal sacrificed to them, and human beings the best. Zeus commanded that Prometheus be chained for eternity in the Caucasus. There, an eagle would eat at his liver and each day, the liver would be renewed. So the punishment was endless, until Heracles finally killed the bird.

Epimetheus - Epimetheus was a Titan, whose name meant "afterthought". In some accounts, he was delegated, along with his brother Prometheus by Zeus to create mankind. He foolishly ignored his brother Prometheus' warnings to beware of any gifts from Zeus. He accepted Pandora as his wife, thereby bringing ills and sorrows to the world.

Maia + Zeus - Maia was a daughter of Atlas. She was one of Zeus' lovers. She, along with Zeus was the mother of Hermes.

Dione + Zeus - The goddess or Titaness Dione became by Zeus the mother of Aphrodite.

Hermes - Hermes' main role was as a messenger. As the special servant and courier of Zeus, Hermes had winged sandals and a winged hat and bore a golden caduceus, or magic wand, entwined with snakes and surmounted by wings. He conducted the souls of the dead to the underworld and was believed to possess magical powers over sleep and dreams. Five minutes after he was born, he stole a herd of cows from Apollo. He invented the lyre from a cow's internal fibers. After Apollo learned what happened, he knew that his half-brother should he one of the pantheon. Hermes was the patron of trickster and thieves because of his actions early in life. His attributes in iconography include the kerykeion (messenger's staff), winged boots, and petassos (cap).

Aphrodite - The goddess of love and beauty. Aphrodite loved and was loved by many gods and mortals. Among her mortal lovers, the most famous was perhaps Adonis. Some of her sons are Eros, Anteros, Hymenaios and Aeneas (with her Trojan lover Anchises). Perhaps the most famous legend about Aphrodite concerns the cause of the Trojan War. She was the wife of Hephaestus. The myrtle was her tree. The dove, the swan, and the sparrow were her birds.

info from www.ancientgreece.com

Flags

HighVoltage123 — Wed, 30 May 2007 11:30:24 CDT

Naval ensigns

Naval Ensign of Albania	Naval Ensign of Algeria	Naval Ensign of Australia	State/Government Flag and State/Naval Ensign of Austria
Naval Ensign of Azerbaijan	Naval Ensign of the Bahamas	Naval Ensign of Bangladesh	Naval Ensign of Barbados
Naval Ensign of Belgium	Naval Ensign of Bolivia	Naval Ensign of Brunei	Naval Ensign of Bulgaria
Naval Ensign of the People's Republic of China	Naval Ensign of Colombia	Naval Ensign of Croatia	Naval Ensign of Denmark
Naval Ensign of Ecuador	Naval Ensign of Egypt	Naval Ensign of Estonia	Naval Ensign of Fiji
War Flag and Naval Ensign of Finland	Civil and Naval Ensign of France	Naval Ensign of Georgia	Naval Ensign and Jack of Germany
Naval Ensign of Ghana	Naval Ensign of Grenada	Naval Ensign of Guyana	Naval Ensign of Honduras
Naval Ensign of Hungary	Naval Ensign of Iceland	Naval Ensign of India	Naval Ensign of Israel
Naval Ensign of Italy	Naval Ensign of Jamaica	Naval Ensign of Japan	Naval Ensign of Jordan
Naval Ensign of Kazakhstan	Naval Ensign of Kenya	Naval Ensign of Latvia	Naval Ensign of Libya
Naval Ensign of Lithuania	Naval Ensign of Maine, United States	Naval Ensign of Malaysia	Naval Ensign of Massachusetts, United States
Naval Ensign of Mauritius	Naval Ensign of Morocco	Naval Ensign of Myanmar	Naval Ensign of New Zealand
Naval Ensign of Nigeria	Naval Ensign of Norway	Naval Ensign of Oman	Naval Ensign of Pakistan
War Flag and Naval Ensign of Peru	Naval Ensign of Poland	Naval Ensign of Russia	Naval Ensign of Saint Kitts and Nevis
Naval Ensign of Saudi Arabia	Naval Ensign of Sierra Leone	Naval Ensign of Singapore	Naval Ensign of the Solomon Islands
Naval Ensign of South Africa	Naval Ensign of Sri Lanka	War Flag and Naval Ensign of Sweden	Naval Ensign of Thailand
Naval Ensign of Tonga	Naval Ensign of Trinidad and Tobago	Naval Ensign of Ukraine	Naval Ensign of the United Kingdom
Naval Ensign of Vanuatu

Jacks

Naval Jack of Argentina	Civil Jack of the Bahamas	Naval Jack of Belgium	Naval Jack of Brazil
Naval Jack of Bulgaria	Naval Jack of Canada	Naval Jack of Chile	Naval Jack of the Republic of China
Naval Jack of Colombia	Naval Jack of Croatia	Naval Jack of Cuba	Naval Jack of the Dominican Republic
Naval Jack of Ecuador	Naval Jack of Egypt	Naval Jack of Estonia	Naval Jack of Finland
Naval Ensign and Jack of Germany	Naval Jack of Greece	Naval Jack of Indonesia	Naval Jack of Ireland
Naval Jack of Italy	Naval Jack of Latvia	Naval Jack of Lithuania	Naval Jack of Malta
Naval Jack of Mexico	Naval Jack of Morocco	Civil Jack of the Netherlands	Naval Jack of the Netherlands
Naval Jack of Norway	Naval Jack of Pakistan	Naval Jack of Papua New Guinea	Naval Jack of Paraguay
Naval Jack of Peru	Naval Jack of the Philippines	Naval Jack of Poland	Naval Jack of Portugal
Naval Jack of Romania	Naval Jack of Russia	Naval Jack of Saudi Arabia	Naval Jack of Slovenia
Naval Jack of Spain	Naval Jack of South Korea	Naval Jack of Thailand	Civil Jack of the United Kingdom
Union Jack of the United States (naval jack, 1960–2002)	"First Navy Jack" of the United States (naval jack, 2002–)	Naval Jack of Uruguay	Naval Jack of Venezuela

Other flags

Yachting Club Ensign of Finland

Jolly Roger

United States Yacht Ensign

Flags with nautical designs

Anchors

Flag of the Admiralty	Naval Ensign of Algeria	Flag of Anchorage, Alaska	Flag of the Areopagus of Eastern Continental Greece (1821-1825)
Australian Defence Force Ensign	Flag of the Chief of Navy of Australia	Naval Ensign of Azerbaijan	Naval Ensign of Belgium
Joint Service Flag of the Canadian Forces	Naval Jack of Canada	Flag of the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets	Flag of the Navy Board of Canada
Naval Ensign of Croatia	Naval Jack of Croatia	Naval Jack of Ecuador	Naval Jack of Egypt
Flag of Haiti	Coast Guard Ensign of India	Naval Ensign of Italy	Naval Ensign of Jordan
State Ensign of Kazakhstan	Naval Ensign of Kazakhstan	Naval Ensign of Kenya	Naval Ensign of Libya
Naval Ensign of Malaysia	Naval Ensign of Mauritius	Naval Ensign of Myanmar	Naval Ensign of Oman
Naval Jack of Pakistan	Flag of the Pitcairn Islands	Flag of Rhode Island	Naval Jack of Romania
Naval Jack of Saudi Arabia	Naval Jack of Thailand	United States Yacht Ensign	Flag of the Isle of Wight

Ships and Boats

Flag of Belize	Flag of Cantabria	Flag of Costa Rica	Flag of the Region of French Guiana
Colonial Flag of Guyana	Flag of New York	Flag of Quebec City	Flag of Wilmington, Delaware

Other nautical motifs

Flag of Barbados (trident)

Flag of Belize (oar)

Flag of Franco-Terreneuviens (sails)

Flag of Portugal (armillary sphere)

info from www.wikipedia.org

Boat sails

HighVoltage123 — Wed, 30 May 2007 11:30:12 CDT

A sail is any type of surface intended to generate thrust by being placed in a wind — in essence a vertically-oriented wing. Sails are used in sailing.

Use of sails

Sails are primarily used at sea, on sailing ships as a propulsion system. For purposes of commerce, sails have been greatly superseded by other forms of propulsion, such as the internal combustion engine. For recreation, however, sailing vessels remain popular.
The most familiar type of sailboat, a small pleasure yacht, usually has a sail-plan called a sloop. This has two sails in a fore-and-aft arrangement: the mainsail and the jib.
The mainsail extends aftward and is secured the whole length of its edges to the mast and to a boom also hung from the mast. The sails of tall ships are attached to wooden timbers or "spars".
The jib is secured along its leading edge to a forestay (strong wire) strung from the top of the mast to the bowsprit on the bow (nose) of the boat. A genoa is also used on some boats. It is a type of jib that is larger, and cut so that it is fuller than an ordinary jib.
Fore-and-aft sails can be switched from one side of the boat to the other, in order to alter the boat's course. When the boat's stern crosses the wind, this is called jibing; when the bow crosses the wind, it is called tacking. Tacking repeatedly from port to starboard and/or vice versa, called "beating", is done in order to allow the boat to follow a course into the wind.
A primary feature of a properly designed sail is an amount of "draft", caused by curvature of the surface of the sail. When the sail is oriented into the wind, this curvature induces lift, much like the wing of an airplane. Modern sails are manufactured with a combination of broadseaming and non-stretch fabric (ref New technology below). The former adds draft, while the latter allows the sail to keep a constant shape as the wind pressure increases. The draft of the sail can be reduced in stronger winds by use of a cunningham and outhaul, and also by increasing the downward pressure of the boom by use of a boom vang.
Other sail powered machines include ice yachts and windmills.
Sail construction is governed by the science of aerodynamics.

Sail aerodynamics

Sails propel the boat in one of two ways. When the boat is going in the direction of the wind (i.e. downwind - see Points of sail), the sails may be set merely to trap the air as it flows by. Sails acting in this way are aerodynamically stalled. In stronger winds, turbulence created behind stalled sails can lead to aerodynamic instability, which in turn can manifest as increased downwind rolling of the boat. Spinnakers and square-rigged sails are often trimmed so that their upper edges become leading edges and they operate as airfoils again, but with airflow directed more or less vertically downwards. This mode of trim also provides the boat with some actual lift and may reduce both wetted area and the risk of 'digging in' to waves.
The other way sails propel the boat occurs when the boat is traveling across or into the wind. In these situations, the sails propel the boat by redirecting the wind coming in from the side towards the rear. In accordance with the law of conservation of momentum, air is redirected backwards, making the boat go forward. This driving force is called lift although it acts largely horizontally.
The lift generated by a sail can be resolved into two main components; forward force and sideways force (see vector space for an explanation of this principle). These forces act against opposing forces generated by the hull and the keel
On a sailing boat, a keel or centreboard helps to prevent the boat from moving sideways. The shape of the keel has a much smaller cross section in the fore and aft axis and a much larger cross section on the athwart axis (across the beam of the boat). The resistance to motion along the smallest cross section is low while resistance to motion across the large cross section is high, so the boat moves forward rather than sideways. In other words it is easier for the sail to push the boat forward rather than sideways. However, there is always a small amount of sideways motion, or "leeway".
Forces across the boat are resolved by balancing the sideways force from the sail with the sideways resistance of the keel or centerboard. Also, if the boat heels, there is an additional force from the mass of the ballast in the keel being raised against gravity. Forward forces are balanced by velocity through the water and friction between the hull, keel and the water.

Parts of the Sail

The lower edge of a triangular sail is called the "foot" of the sail, while the upper point is known as the "head". The lower two points of the sail, on either end of the foot, are called the "tack" (forward) and "clew" (aft). The forward edge of the sail is called the "luff" (from which derives the term "luffing", a rippling of the sail when the angle of the wind fails to maintain a good aerodynamic shape near the luff). The aft edge of a sail is called the "leech".

Modern sails are designed such that the warp and the weft of the sailcloth are oriented parallel to the luff and foot of the sail. This places the most stretchable axis of the cloth along the diagonal axis (parallel to the leech), and makes it possible for sailors to reduce the draft of the sail by tensioning the sail, mast and boom in various ways.
Often tell-tales, small pieces of yarn, are attached to the sail. They are used as a guide when trimming the sail.
An alternative approach to sail design is that used in Junks, originally an oriental design. It uses horizontal sail curving to produce an efficient and easily controlled sail-plan.
Sail Types

Modern sails can be classified into three main categories: Mainsail, Headsail, and Spinnaker or downwind sail (also termed Kite). Special-purpose sails are often a variation of the three main categories. Most modern yachts including bermuda rig, ketch and yawl boats have a sail "inventory" which usually includes more than one of these types of sails. Although the mainsail is “permanently” hoisted while sailing, headsails and spinnakers can be changed depending on the particular weather conditions to allow better handling and speed.
Mainsails as the name implies are the main element of the sailplan. A "motor" as well as a rudder for the boat, mainsails can be as simple as a traditional triangle-shaped, cross-cut sail (see Sail Construction below). In most cases, the mainsail isn’t changed while sailing although there are mechanisms to reduce its surface if the wind is very strong (a technique called reefing). In extreme weather, a mainsail can be folded and a trysail hoisted to allow steerage without endangering the boat.
Headsails are the main driving sails when going upwind (sailing towards the wind). There are many types of headsails with Genoa and Jib being the most commonly used. Both these types have different subtypes depending on their intended use. Headsails are usually classified according to their weight (that is, the relative weight of the sailcloth used) and size or total area of the sail. A common classification is numbering from 1 to 3 (larger to smaller) with a description of the use for example: #1 Heavy or #1 Medium/Light. Special types of headsails include the Gennaker (also named Code 0 by some sailmakers), the drifter (a type of Genoa that is used like an assymetrical spinnaker), the screecher (essentially a large Genoa), the windseeker and storm jib. Certain Genoas and Jibs also have battens which assist in maintaining an optimal shape for the sail.
Spinnakers are used for reaching and running (downwind sailing). They are very light and have a balloon-like shape. As with headsails there are many types of spinnakers depending on the shape, area and cloth weight. Symmetrical spinnakers are most efficient on runs and dead runs (sailing with wind coming directly from behind) while asymmetric spinnakers are very efficient in reaching (the wind coming from the rear but at an angle to the boat or from the side).
Sail Construction

A sail might look flat when lying on the floor but once it's hoisted, it becomes a three-dimensional, curved surface, in essence an airfoil. In order for a sail to be "built", it has to be designed in a number of elements (or panels) which are cut and sewn together to form the foil. In older days, this was rightfully considered an art which was later complemented (and arguably overshadowed) by technology. With the advent of computers, sail manufacturers were able to model their sails using special computer-aided design (CAD) programs and directly feed the data to very accurate laser plotters/cutters which cut the panels from rolls of sail cloth, replacing the traditional manual process (scissors).
The key features that distinguish a "fast" from a "slow" sail are its shape related to the particular boat and rig and its ability to consistently maintain that shape. These two features rely mostly on the design of the sail (the way that the panels are placed with one another) and the sail cloth used. The traditional parallel-panel (cross-cut) gave way to more complex (radial) designs where the panels have different shapes for the top, mid, and lower sections of the sail depending on pressure of the air caused by its flow over the sail surface. Again aided by CAD and special modelling software the sailmakers use cloths of different weight, placing heavier cloth panels where there is more stress and lighter cloth where there is less to make savings in weight.
Older fabrics (especially cotton and low budget synthetic), have the tendency to stretch with wind pressure which results in distorted and consequently non-efficient sail shapes. Moreover, the cloth itself is heavy which also adds to the inefficiency. Synthetic materials such as Nylon and Dacron were followed by advanced sail cloths made from exotic material yarns such as Aramid (e.g. Twaron or kevlar), carbon fiber, HMPE (e.g. Spectra/Dyneema), Zylon (PBO) and Vectran. These materials were a breakthrough in sail technology as they provided the raw material in the manufacture of low-stretch, low-weight and long-life sail cloths. Manufacturers were able to use different weights of yarn to weave cloths with exceptional properties. In order to protect the yarns themselves from the elements (salt water and sunlight) and harsh use (flagging and chaffing), the woven cloth is "sandwiched" between two films of Mylar and placed in special ovens under pressure to bond into a single body, a process called lamination. Once the panels are sewn together, the sailmakers complete the sail by placing the finishing elements such as the leech and foot lines, protective patches in the areas where the sail will scrape against hardware (stanchions, spreaders), steel rings and straps at the tack and clew, cleats, batten pockets (if required) and sail numbers.

History of sails

Sails were invented in the ancient age, and were the most important source of propulsion during the age of sail.

Advances in Sail Materials and Manufacture

In addition to advances in the exotic materials and consequent cloths themselves, manufacturers have also progressed the manufacturing process with the creation of glued and molded sails. Glued sails are regular paneled sails but instead of sewing the pieces together, the sailmaker uses a special, ultra-strong polymer glue which bonds through the use of ultrasound. In molding, a curved mold is designed and created in the optimum (three dimensional) shape of the sail that the sailmaker wants to produce. A film of Mylar is placed on the mold and a special gantry hovers over the film laying the yarns based on instructions of a computer that has the model of the sail. Once this is done, a second sheet of Mylar film is placed on top and the whole mold (with the sail) is placed in a vacuum oven which causes the materials to bond (curing). The result is a smooth sail which is lighter and has a wider effective wind range (the minimum and maximum wind speed that the sail can withstand and be effective).
Molding initially targeted high-end competition boats because of the costs of the sails produced but has steadily moved on to cover cruising yachts although panelled (woven) sails account for the majority of sails (racing or recreational) used around the world. The concept of molded sails was introduced by Sobstad Sails with its Genesis line but did not maintain consistent product performance. North Sails introduced its successful 3DL product line which also resulted in a legal battle with Sobstad. Variations of the molding sailmaking process are used by other leading sail manufacturers such as Quantum with the Fusion-M line and Doyle Sailmakers with the Stratis line. Other sailmakers are producing lines which make use of molding concepts although not necessarily the production process itself such as the UK-Halsey TapeDrive line.

info from www.wikipedia.org

Boat stuff

HighVoltage123 — Wed, 30 May 2007 11:29:51 CDT

Boat

A boat is a watercraft designed to float on, and provide transport over, water. Usually this water will be inland or in protected coastal areas. However, boats such as the whaleboat were historically designed to be operated from a ship in an offshore environment. In Naval terms, a boat is something small enough to be carried aboard another vessel (a ship). Boats that are notable exceptions to this concept due to their large size are the Great Lakes freighter, riverboat, and ferryboat. These examples do, however, generally operate on inland and protected coastal waters. Modern submarines may also be referred to as boats (in spite of underwater capabilities and size), but this is possibly due to the fact that the first submarines could be carried by a ship and were certainly not capable of making offshore passages on their own. Boats may have military, other government, research, or commercial usage; but a vessel, regardless of size, that is in private, non-commercial usage is almost certainly a boat.

Parts of a boat

The roughly horizontal, but cambered structures spanning the hull of the boat are referred to as the "deck". In a ship there are often several, but a boat is unlikely to have more than one. The similar but usually lighter structure which spans a raised cabin is a coach-roof. The "floor" of a cabin is properly known as the sole but is more likely to be called the floor. (A floor is properly, a structural member which ties a frame to the keelson and keel.) The underside of a deck is the deck head. The keel is a lengthwise structural member to which the frames are fixed (sometimes referred to as a backbone). The vertical surfaces dividing the internal space are bulkheads. The front of a boat is called the bow or prow. The rear of the boat is called the stern. The right side is starboard and the left side is port.
Types of boats

Air boat
Banana boat
Bangca
Bareboat charter
Barge
Beach Boat
Bellyboat...a doughnut-shaped boat c/w an underwater seat in the "hole". Used for fly-fishing and propelled by a paddle. A burger shaped boat.
Bow Rider
Cabin cruiser
Canoe
Cape Islander
Car-boat
Caravel
Catamaran
Catboat
Coble
Center Console
Coracle
Cruiser
Cruising trawler
Cuddy
Cutter (sailing boat)
Dhow
Dinghy
Dory
Dragon boat
Dredge
Drift Boat
Durham Boat
Express Cruiser
Felucca
Ferry
Fireboat
Fishing boat

Folding boat
Go-fast boat
Gondola
Great Lakes freighter
Houseboat
Hovercraft
Hydrofoil
Hydroplane
Inflatable boat
Jetboat
Jet ski
Jon boat
Junk
Kayak and Sea kayak
Ketch
Lifeboat
Log boat
Longboat
Luxury yacht
Motorboat
Narrowboat
Norfolk wherry
Outrigger canoe
Padded V-hull
Panga
Personal water craft (PWC)
Pinnace
Pirogue
Pleasure craft
Pontoon
Powerboat
Punt

Raft
Rigid-hulled inflatable boat (RHIB) or (RIB)
Riverboat
Runabout
Rowboat, rowing boat
Sailboat, sailing boat
Sampan
Schooner
Scow
Sharpie
Shikaras
Ship's tender
Ski boat
Skiff
steam boat
Sloop
Submarine
Surf boat
Swift boat
Tarai Bune
Trimaran
Trawler (fishing)
Tugboat
U-boat
Waka
Wakeboard boat
Walkaround
Water taxi
Whaleboat
Yacht
Yawl

Unusual boats have been used for sports purposes - for example, in "big bathtub races" which use boats made from bathtubs. Pumpkins have been used as boats as in the annual Pumpkin Boat Race on Lake Otsego in New York state, USA. In this race, very large, hollowed out pumpkin shells are used for boats, powered by canoe paddles.
Boat building materials
Until the mid 19th century most boats were of all natural materials; primarily wood. Many boats had been built with iron or steel frames but still planked in wood. In 1855 ferro-cement boat construction was patented by the French. They called it Ferciment. This is a system by which a steel or iron wire framework is built in the shape of a boat's hull and covered (troweled) over with cement. Reinforced with bulkheads and other internal structure it is strong but heavy, easily repaired, and, if sealed properly, will not leak or corrode. These materials and methods were copied all over the world, and have faded in and out of popularity to the present. As the forests of Britain and Europe continued to be over-harvested to supply the keels of larger wooden boats, and the Bessemer Process (patented in 1855) cheapened the cost of steel, steel ships and boats began to be more common. By the 1930s boats built of all steel from frames to plating were seen replacing wooden boats in many industrial uses, even the fishing fleets. Private recreational boats in steel are uncommon. In the mid 20th century aluminium gained popularity. Though much more expensive than steel, there are now aluminum alloys available that will not corrode in salt water, and an aluminum boat built to similar load carrying standards could be built lighter than steel. Platt Monfort invented Wire Plank(r)(1969), Fer-a-Lite(r)(1972), Str-r-etch Mesh(r)(1975), and Geodesic Airolite Boats(r)(1981). Fer-A-Lite(r) is a mixture of polyester resin, fiberglass, and a filler. This, along with Str-r-etch Mesh(r), could be used to build a boat in the same fashion as a ferro-cement boat, but the resulting hull would be much lighter and more resilient. Wire Plank(r) was first used in ferro-cement construction, but could also be used with Fer-a-Lite to create a medium to heavy weight hull. Geodesic Airolite Boats(r) are built using very lightweight wooden frames (geodesic) that are covered over with some lightweight heatshrinkable plastic or a synthetic fabric such as dacron coated with sealant. This tensioned skin adds to the overall strength of the structure and boats built thus are of the ultra-light variety. Around the mid 1960s, boats made out of glass-reinforced plastic, more commonly known as fiberglass, became popular, especially for recreational boats. The coast guard refers to such boats as 'FRP' (for Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic) boats. Fiberglass boats are extremely strong, and do not rust, corrode, or rot. They are, however susceptible to structural degradation from sunlight and extremes in temperature over their lifespan. Fiberglass provides structural strength, especially when long woven strands are laid, sometimes from bow to stern, and then soaked in epoxy or polyester resin to form the hull of the boat. Whether hand laid or built in a mold, FRP boats usually have an outer coating of gelcoat which is a thin solid colored layer of polyester resin that adds no structural strength, but does create a smooth surface which can be buffed to a high shine. One of the disadvantages of fiberglass is that it is heavy and to alleviate this, various lighter components can be incorporated into the design. One of the more common methods is to use cored FRP, with the core being balsa wood completely encased in fiberglass. Cored FRP is most often found in decking which helps keep down weight that will be carried above the waterline. While this works, the addition of wood makes the cored structure of the boat susceptible to rotting. The phrase 'advanced composites' in FRP construction may indicate the addition of carbon fiber, kevlar(tm) or other similar materials, but it may also indicate other methods designed to introduce less expensive and, by at least one yacht surveyor's eywitness accounts, less structurally sound materials. Cold molding is similar to FRP in as much as it involves the use of epoxy or polyester resins, but the structural component is wood instead of fiberglass. In cold molding very thin strips of wood are laid over a form or mold in layers. This layer is then coated with resin and another directionally alternating layer is laid on top. In some processes the subsequent layers are stapled or otherwise mechanically fastened to the previous layers, but in other processes the layers are weighted or even vacuum bagged to hold layers together while the resin sets. Layers are built up thus to create the required thickness of hull. People have even made their own boats or watercraft out of commonly available materials such as styrofoam or plastic, but most homebuilts today are built of plywood and either painted or covered in a layer of fiberglass and resin.
Why boats float
A boat stays afloat because its weight is equal to that of the water it displaces. The material of the boat itself may be heavier than water (per volume), but it forms only the outer layer. Inside it is air, which is negligible in weight. But it does add to the volume. The central term here is density, which is mass ('weight') per volume. The mass of the boat (plus contents) as a whole has to be divided by the volume below the waterline. If the boat floats, then that is equal to the density of water (1 kg/l). To the water it is as if there is water there because the average density is the same. If weight is added to the boat, the volume below the waterline will have to increase too, to keep the mass/weight balance equal, so the boat sinks a little to compensate.

info from www.wikipedia.org

History

HighVoltage123 — Wed, 30 May 2007 11:29:40 CDT

One of the great paradoxes of history is that the next hesitant advance of European civilization - the development of the first city-states - took place not on the fertile open central European plains, but in a remote island to the south of the Aegean Sea which was completely lacking in metal resources. While the glittering mounted warrior-princes of central Europe dissipated their creative energy in warfare, a highly cultured yet peaceful society, built on trade and an agricultural surplus, emerged on Crete.

The history of Greece can be traced back to Stone Age hunters. Later came early farmers and the civilizations of the Minoan and Mycenaean kings. This was followed by a period of wars and invasions, known as the Dark Ages. In about 1100 BC, a people called the Dorians invaded from the north and spread down the west coast. In the period from 500-336 BC Greece was divided into small city states, each of which consisted of a city and its surrounding countryside.

Neolithic Period (6000 - 2900)

Neolithic Cultures

Early Bronze Age (2900 - 2000) - The period in antiquity that corresponds to the introduction of metallurgy, notably bronze-working, for making tools, weapons, and ceremonial object
The Prehistoric Archaeology of the Aegean
the Bronze Age civilization that developed (c. 3000-1200 BC) in the basin of the Aegean Sea, mainly on Crete, the Cyclades, and the mainland of Greece.

The Prehistoric Archeology of the Aegean
the Bronze Age civilization that developed (c. 3000-1200 BC) in the basin of the Aegean Sea, mainly on Crete, the Cyclades, and the mainland of Greece.
The Early Cycladic Period
small island group (Cyclades) situated in the centre of the Aegean in Greece, which developed a unique and distinctive civilization that flourished from around 3200-2000 BC.
The Early Minoan Period:The Settlements
Bronze Age civilization, centering on the island of Crete, that flourished c. 3000 to 1100 BC. It was named after the legendary king Minos.
Evans divided Minoan civilization into three periods: Early Minoan (c. 3000-c. 2200 BC), Middle Minoan (c. 2200-c. 1600 BC), and Late Minoan (c. 1600-c. 1100 BC). The Early Minoan Period: The Tombs Western Anatolia and the Eastern Aegean in the Early Bronze Age

Minoan Age(2000 - 1400 BC ) - Bronze Age civilization, centring on the island of Crete. It was named after the legendary king Minos. It is divided into three periods: the early Minoan period (c.3000-2200 B.C.), the Middle Minoan period (c.2200-1500 B.C.) and the Late Minoan period (c.1500-1000 B.C.).

Middle Minoan Crete

The Minoans

The History of The Minoans

Mycenaean Age (600 - 1100 BC) - Period of high cultural achievement, forming the backdrop and basis for subsequent myths of the heroes. It was named for the kingdom of Mycenae and the archaeological site where fabulous works in gold were unearthed. The Mycenaean Age was cut short by widespread destruction ushering in the Greek Dark Age.

Mycenaean Tholos Tombs and Early Mycenaean Settlements

The Collapse of Mycenaean Palatial Civilization and the Coming of the Dorians

The Myceneans

Most families owned slaves as household servants and labourers, and even poor families might have owned a few slaves. Owners were not allowed to beat or kill their slaves. Owners often promised to free slaves in the future to encourage slaves to work hard. Unlike in Rome, slaves who were freed did not become citizens. Instead, they were mixed into the population of metics, which included people from foreign countries or other city-states who were officially allowed to live in the state. City-states legally owned slaves. These public slaves had a larger measure of independence than slaves owned by families, living on their own and performing specialized tasks. In Athens, public slaves were trained to look out for counterfeit coinage, while temple slaves acted as servants of the temple's deity. Sparta had a special type of slaves called helots. Helots were Greek war captives owned by the state and assigned to families where they were forced to stay. Helots raised food and did household chores so that women could concentrate on raising strong children while men could devote their time to training as hoplites. Their masters treated them harshly and helots often revolted.

info from www.ancientgreece.com

Olympics

HighVoltage123 — Wed, 30 May 2007 11:29:01 CDT

There are many myths and legends surrounding the origin of the ancient Olympic Games. The most popular legend describes that Heracles was the creator of the Olympic Games, and built the Olympic stadium and surrounding buildings as an honor to his father Zeus, after completing his 12 labors. According to that legend he walked in a straight line for 400 strides and called this distance a "stadion" (Greek: "Στάδιον")- (Roman: "stadium") (Modern English: "Stage") that later also became a distance calculation unit. This is also why a modern stadium is 400 meters in circumference length (1 stadium = 400 m). Another myth associates the first Games with the ancient Greek concept of ἐκεχειρία (ekecheiria) or Olympic Truce. The date of the Games' inception based on the count of years in Olympiads is reconstructed as 776 BC, although scholars' opinions diverge between dates as early as 884 BC and as late as 704 BC. From then on, the Games quickly became much more important throughout ancient Greece, reaching their zenith in the sixth and fifth centuries BC. The Olympics were of fundamental religious importance, contests alternating with sacrifices and ceremonies honouring both Zeus (whose colossal statue stood at Olympia), and Pelops, divine hero and mythical king of Olympia famous for his legendary chariot race, in whose honour the games were held. The number of events increased to twenty, and the celebration was spread over several days. Winners of the events were greatly admired and were immortalised in poems and statues. The Games were held every four years, and the period between two celebrations became known as an 'Olympiad'. The Greeks used Olympiads as one of their methods to count years. The most famous Olympic athlete lived in these times: the sixth century BC wrestler Milo of Croton is the only athlete in history to win a victory in six Olympics. The Games gradually declined in importance as the Romans gained power in Greece. When Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire, the Olympic Games were seen as a pagan festival and in discord with Christian ethics, and in 393 AD the emperor Theodosius I outlawed the Olympics, ending a thousand-year tradition. During the ancient times normally only young men could participate.Competitors were usually naked, not only as the weather was appropriate but also as the festival was meant to be, in part, a celebration of the achievements of the human body. Upon winning the games, the victor would have not only the prestige of being in first place but would also be presented with a crown of olive leaves. The olive branch is a sign of hope and peace. Even though the bearing of a torch formed an integral aspect of Greek ceremonies, the ancient Olympic Games did not include it, nor was there a symbol formed by interconnecting rings. These Olympic symbols were introduced as part of the modern Olympic Games.

info from www.ancientgreece.com

Art and Architecture

HighVoltage123 — Wed, 30 May 2007 11:28:40 CDT

Architecture in ancient Greece: Greek life was dominated by religion and so it is not surprising that the temples of ancient Greece were the biggest and most beautiful.They also had a political purpose as they were often built to celebrate civic power and pride, or offer thanksgiving to the patron deity of a city for success in war. The Greeks developed three architectural systems, called orders, each with their own distinctive proportions and detailing. The Greek orders are: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.

Doric The Doric style is rather sturdy and its top (the capital), is plain. This style was used in mainland Greece and the colonies in southern Italy and Sicily.

Ionic
The Ionic style is thinner and more elegant. Its capital is decorated with a scroll-like design (a volute). This style was found in eastern Greece and the islands.

Corinthian
The Corinthian style is seldom used in the Greek world, but often seen on Roman temples. Its capital is very elaborate and decorated with acanthus leaves.

	Doric Order: Parthenon - temple of Athena Parthenos ("Virgin"), Greek goddess of wisdom, on the Acropolis in Athens. The Parthenon was built in the 5th century BC, and despite the enormous damage it has sustained over the centuries, it still communicates the ideals of order and harmony for which Greek architecture is known. Ionic Order: Erechtheum - temple from the middle classical period of Greek art and architecture, built on the Acropolis of Athens between 421 and 405BC. The Erechtheum contained sanctuaries to Athena Polias, Poseidon, and Erechtheus. The requirements of the several shrines and the location upon a sloping site produced an unusual plan. From the body of the building porticoes project on east, north, and south sides. The eastern portico, hexastyle Ionic, gave access to the shrine of Athena, which was separated by a partition from the western cella. The northern portico, tetrastyle Ionic, stands at a lower level and gives access to the western cella through a fine doorway. The southern portico, known as the Porch of the Caryatids (see caryatid) from the six sculptured draped female figures that support its entablature, is the temple's most striking feature; it forms a gallery or tribune. The west end of the building, with windows and engaged Ionic columns, is a modification of the original, built by the Romans when they restored the building. One of the east columns and one of the caryatids were removed to London by Lord Elgin, replicas being installed in their places. The Temple of Apollo at Didyma - The Greeks built the Temple of Apollo at Didyma, Turkey (about 300 BC). The design of the temple was known as dipteral, a term that refers to the two sets of columns surrounding the interior section. These columns surrounded a small chamber that housed the statue of Apollo. With Ionic columns reaching 19.5 m (64 ft) high, these ruins suggest the former grandeur of the ancient temple. The Temple of Athena Nike - part of the Acropolis in the city of Athens. The Greeks built the Temple of Apollo at Didyma, Turkey (about 300 BC). The design of the temple was known as dipteral, a term that refers to the two sets of columns surrounding the interior section. These columns surrounded a small chamber that housed the statue of Apollo. With Ionic columns reaching 19.5 m (64 ft) high, these ruins suggest the former grandeur of the ancient temple. Corinthian Order: - most ornate of the classic orders of architecture. It was also the latest, not arriving at full development until the middle of the 4th cent. B.C. The oldest known example, however, is found in the temple of Apollo at Bassae (c.420 B.C.). The Greeks made little use of the order; the chief example is the circular structure at Athens known as the choragic monument of Lysicrates ( 335 B.C.). The temple of Zeus at Athens (started in the 2d cent. B.C. and completed by Emperor Hadrian in the 2d cent. A.D.) was perhaps the most notable of the Corinthian temples.

info from www.ancientgreece.com

Compass

HighVoltage123 — Wed, 30 May 2007 11:27:30 CDT

DEFINITION- A compass (or mariner's compass) is a navigational instrument for finding directions on the earth. It consists of a magnetized pointer free to align itself accurately with Earth's magnetic field, which is of great assistance in navigation. The cardinal points are north, south, east and west. A compass can be used in conjunction with a chronometer and a sextant to provide a very accurate navigation capability. This device greatly improved maritime trade by making travel safer and more efficient. An early form of compass was invented in China in the 3rd century in 271 AD and is one of four great inventions of ancient China. The familiar mariner's compass was invented in Europe around 1300.

Technical - More technically, a compass is a magnetic device using a needle to indicate the direction of the magnetic north of a planet's magnetosphere. Any instrument with a magnetized bar or needle turning freely upon a pivot and pointing in a northerly and southerly direction can be considered a compass. A compass dial is a small pocket compass with a sundial. A variation compass is a specific instrument of a delicate type of construction. It is used by observing variations of the needle. A gyrocompass or astrocompass can also be used to ascertain True north.

Pre-history

Prior to the introduction of the compass, direction at sea was primarily determined by the position of celestial bodies. Navigation was supplemented in some places by the use of soundings. Difficulties arose where the sea was too deep for soundings and conditions were continually overcast or foggy. Thus the compass was not of the same utility everywhere. For example, the Arabs could generally rely on clear skies in navigating the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean (as well as the predictable nature of the monsoons). This may explain in part their relatively late adoption of the compass. Mariners in the relatively shallow Baltic made extensive use of soundings.

Question of Diffusion

There is much debate on what happened to the compass after its first appearance with the Chinese. Different theories include:

Travel of the compass from China to the Middle East via the Silk Road, and then to Europe
Direct transfer of the compass from China to Europe, and then later from Europe to the Middle East
Independent creation of the compass in the Europe and then its transfer thereafter to the Middle East.

The latter two are supported by evidence of the earlier mentioning of the compass in European works rather than Arabic. The first European mention of a magnetized needle and its use among sailors occurs in Alexander Neckam's De naturis rerumParis in 1190. Other evidence for this includes the Arabic word for "Compass" (al-konbas), possibly being a derivation of the old Italian word for compass
In the Arab world, the earliest reference comes in The Book of the Merchants' Treasure, written by one Baylak al-Kibjaki in Cairo about 1282. Since the author describes having witnessed the use of a compass on a ship trip some forty years earlier, some scholars are inclined to antedate its first appearance accordingly. There is also a slightly earlier non-Mediterranean Muslim reference to an iron fish-like compass in a Persian talebook from 1232. (On the Natures of Things), probably written in

Question of independent European invention

There have been various arguments put forward whether the European compass was an independent invention or not:
Arguments pro independent invention:

The navigational needle in Europe points invariably north, whereas always south in China.
The European compass showed from the beginning sixteen basic divisions, not twenty-four as in China.
The apparent failure of the Arabs to function as possible intermediaries between East and West due to the earlier recorded appearance of the compass in Europe (1190) than in the Muslim world (1232, 1242, or 1282).

Arguments contra independent invention:

The temporal priority of the Chinese navigational compass (1117) as opposed to the European (1190).

Impact in the Mediterranean

In the Mediterranean the practice from ancient times had been to curtail sea travel between October and April, due in part to the lack of dependable clear skies during the Mediterranean winter (and much of the sea is too deep for soundings). With improvements in dead reckoning methods, and the development of better charts, this changed during the second half of the 13th century. By around 1290 the sailing season could start in late January or February, and end in December. The additional few months were of considerable economic importance; it enabled Venetian convoys, for instance, to make two round trips a year to the eastern Mediterranean, instead of one.
Around the time Europeans learned of the compass, traffic between the Mediterranean and northern Europe increased, and one factor may be that the compass made traversal of the Bay of Biscay safer and easier.

Modern liquid-filled compass

In 1936 Tuomas Vohlonen invented the first successful portable liquid-filled compass designed for individual use.

Construction of a simple compass

A magnetic rod is required when constructing a compass. This can be created by aligning an iron or steel rod with Earth's magnetic field and then tempering or striking it. However, this method produces only a weak magnet so other methods are preferred. This magnetised rod (or magnetic needle) is then placed on a low friction surface to allow it to freely pivot to align itself with the magnetic field. It is then labeled so the user can distinguish the north-pointing from the south-pointing end; in modern convention the north end is typically marked in some way, often by being painted red. Flavio Gioja (fl. 1302), an Italian marine pilot, is sometimes credited with perfecting the sailor's compass by suspending its needle over a fleur-de-lis design, which pointed north. He also enclosed the needle in a little box with a glass cover.

info from www.wikipedia.org

Boat Anchors

HighVoltage123 — Wed, 30 May 2007 11:27:05 CDT

A Short History of Boat Anchors

There are two basic theories floating around as far as the history of anchors is concerned. One must picture early men learning one floating log can assist in crossing a river or stream. Two logs lashed together was much more stable and did not roll over on the captain, and ultimately could be guided with a pole, however there were times it was nice to stop the water craft, such as it was, to fish or just float in one place for security purposes, and anchors were born.... The other theory or theories tell stories of the gods and how they gave us the technology we use to this very day, including seamanship. I am of the opinion it was a little of both going on way back in time, but in any case some of the earliest anchors we have recognized and found come from the Sea of Galilee... When Jesus proclaimed "I am the anchor..." he knew just exactly how important one was. It seems he had sailed for his uncle Joseph who was the Onasis of his day, according to ancient records now in public domain, and so Christ knew the value of these life saving mooring devices. Stone was the medium of choice as it had weight, could be drilled for a mooring line, and if chaffed off nothing was really lost as there were many stones around. Metal was far too precious to use for mooring purposes because of such risky odds governing losses. The ropes used in those days was of the hemp variety, and sea water as well as sun and just weather rotted the line, especially immersed all the time. It did not take man long to discover treating the hemp with bitumen or petroleum products, if you prefer, extended the life of the anchor "cable". The Near East was full of oil seeps and the bitumen was used for everything man could think of, for men before Christ knew as much about the classes of petroleum such as asphalts, mineral oils, paraffin based oils and the napthas as we do today. In short, petroleum was used to preserve many items in those days, and hemp was one of them. (Tarred Hemp) As far as the mooring device itself, metal still was too precious to use for this marine purpose however, but the anchor stones took on the form of stone disks, wheel like, with a hole in the middle that a line could be passed through and in some cases, detached or slipped through the weight and leave it on the bottom, recovering the precious line. At some point a windlass was invented to provide mechanical advantage to retrieving the ship anchor, which in turn allowed for more efficient anchor design or size, and allowed vessels to anchor where they would have been too exposed or possibly fighting too much current before the changes. Try to pull anchors by hand is no easy task and the vessels were for the most part under 100 feet long and carried small crews. This windlass seems to have come about sometime before Christ, however wide spread use was after the death of Jesus when the idea caught on in the Roman Empire. On the Pacific side during this time the Chinese went through much of the same engineering process, and the sea worthiness of Chinese junks is world renown.

In olden times a Sea Peoples merchant ship would load several of the large stone disks and use them as ballast as well as mooring devices, as the vessels made their ports of call as far away as the English Isles of Tin. There are areas of the Med that were ports at one time and some still are, and the bottom of the harbors reflect this from all the old stone anchors. Spare mooring devices and extra line was a must for the old vessels, and this practice still applies to a large degree today. People lose their boat anchors quite often, mostly through neglect of the cable ( or string), shackles or winch... A smart mariner always carries a spare anchor of some sort. To make anchors work one starts with the line, or "string" as some have jokingly called any mooring line which is not made of steel. From plant fiber to chain, from hemp to cable and synthetic fibers, and for the anchor: from stone to wood and metal to just plain metal, was the cycle as we know of it. Different ideas and styles of anchors merged through the years, many for select purposes. Have you ever seen photos or real sailing ship anchors at museums, and merely took some time to look around to see what has replaced them? Though the principles have never changed, the relative efficiency of the boat anchoring hardware has, and the Forfjord Safety boat anchor manufactured in Seattle, WA USA, is famous for its superiority in this area. It is often called a Navy type anchor because of its general shape but it actually has twice the holding power because of its unique design. In short, efficiency through refined engineering by way of thousands of years of accumulated sea experience... The types of anchors best known for actual sea duty are the Navy, Danforth, Plow, and Mushroom style. The Nordhill type of anchor is based off of what the old sailing ships used so the individual boatman has a very good choice this day and age at choosing the style of anchor which suits them best for the waters they frequent. When drifting at night, parachute type sea anchors are employed to slow the vessel wind drift. There are good folding anchors for small sail craft such as sailboats limited to storage space. The metal alloys in a premium anchor are not inexpensive, so watch out for cheap imitations of the above styles of mooring devices, as they do abound, and not all of the imitations originate out of the Orient. Think of a good anchor as you would an insurance policy. Bad insurance never pays off, and bad anchors destroy vessels and crews of all sizes, something the ancient Sea People knew only too well. Always keep in mind sailing any vessel without a good anchor is the same as driving a car or truck without brakes... By using a shackle and chain (In some cases line or cable) which is properly sized for the your anchor, and making sure your winch or windlass is of proper size and well mounted, protects your vessel and its crew when anchoring in weather. To assure this use a chain or cable length about 5 times the depth of the water from 20-100 feet. Use 4 times the depth of the water from 100-200 feet of water under the vessel keel if high winds are forecast. This is a general good rule of thumb implemented by those mariners using Forfjord Safety Anchors. For the rest of the styles, more chain may be used and a heavier anchor employed (Normally twice the size). Always try know what kind of bottom you have chosen to drop the mooring device onto. Most charts have the type of bottom (such as sand or clay) displayed in the various areas and bays used for anchoring your vessel. Learn to read your charts. If you are new to vessel ownership, the United States Coast Guard Auxiliary has classes to assist the small boat owner. Buying a boat or a ship is like buying a car and it brings with it the same responsibilities found on the road. There are rules and laws governing vessel conduct on water and many good instruction manuals are on the book market which will assist your learning. Boating safety equipment is a must and your anchor is one of the items...

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